Cracking at fastener holes is a major source of fatigue problems in airframe structures. The problem is caused by the intensification of stress that occurs at the edge of a hole during loading. Fatigue lifetime enhancement of a fastener hole is intended to improve the fatigue performance of a structure, hopefully to a level which is comparable to that of the structural material without the presence of holes.
It has long been the practice, in the fabrication and assembly of structures, such as, aircraft and aerospace structures, to first drill or punch holes through the metal through which bolts, rivets, or fasteners are to pass and to then cold work the metal around the hole. Such working stretches the work piece beyond the yield strength of the work piece and increases the fatigue life of the structure about the hole by generating compressive stress gradients within the material about the worked hole. Because the greatest tensile stress concentration from external loading occurs at the hole surface, increased residual compression stress gradients increase the fatigue life of the structure. Fatigue life of the structure is also increased by the introduction of interference fit fasteners (including bolts, pins, rivets, fasteners, and/or bushings) into holes in the structure. The improvement offered by interference fit is caused by a combination of two effects. First, the stress intensity at the hole surface is significantly reduced because of highly effective load transfer through the bolt. Second, depending upon the level of interference, the interference fit bolt induces favorable compressive interference stresses near the bolt hole which prolong fatigue life.
One method heretofore followed in working of drilled or punched holes has been to force a ball (having a diameter slightly larger than the hole) through the hole, enlarging it and compressing the metal around the hole. Rather than using a ball, slotted collars or split sleeves and oversized mandrels have also been employed. In this arrangement, the slotted collar or split sleeve, having a relaxed diameter which will fit through the drilled hole, is placed in the hole, expanded with a slightly oversized mandrel and the mandrel is removed. The slotted collar or split sleeve springs back to its relaxed diameter, is removed from the hole and discarded.
In the instance of the oversized ball and the slotted collar or split sleeve and the oversized mandrel, in addition to compressing, stressing, and increasing the strength and fatigue resistance around the hole, the oversized ball and collar or sleeve, where such collar or sleeve is used, distort or displace the metal. The oversized ball tends to force the metal through as well as radially out of the hole. Thus, the ends of the hole wall are not square and must be subsequently machined or finished. In the case of the slotted collar or split sleeve, a ridge in the hole wall at the collar slot or sleeve split may be formed which must be removed by machining or finishing. Machining or finishing to square the hole wall or remove the ridge in the wall adds to the cost and, to a degree, reduces the advantages attained by working. The likelihood of fatigue-related failures is increased.
In the assignee's previously issued U.S. Pat. No. 4,433,567, a sleeve fabricated from a shape memory alloy is employed with a mandrel for cold working a hole. The sleeve is fabricated from a metal treated to have a memory shape, such as Nitinol, nickel-titanium alloys or copper-zinc-aluminum alloys.
Nitinol is family of nickel-titanium alloys having a chemical composition of from about 53% to 57% by weight of nickel and the balance titanium with small percentages of other elements added to adjust transformation temperature, e.g. iron or cobalt. It was developed by the U.S. Naval Ordnance Laboratory. Copper-zinc-aluminum alloys having about 70% by weight of copper and the balance zinc with small additions of aluminum have been developed by the International Copper Research Association.